Al-Ahram: A Diwan of contemporary life (480)
Your health
"What Should be Known" was the title of a regular column Al-Ahram introduced at the beginning of 1931. Part of an overhaul the newspaper underwent that year, the new addition was, as Professor Yunan Labib Rizk* writes, a precursor of the medical advice columns we see in the press today
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In "What Should be Known", readers of Al-Ahram 70 years ago were given a detailed account of how the human body functions
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Although the author of "What Should be Known" was anonymous, he was probably a physician dedicated to raising public health awareness. Or perhaps he was a journalist, abreast with medical periodicals published in the West, considering the up-to-date information he provided, his references to modern scientists abroad and his familiarity with the findings of their latest research.
The columnist opened his series, under "The body and its components", with a discussion of the human body and its relationship with its environment. Within a given day, he writes, the human body requires 95 derhaman of meat, 160 derhaman of bread, 240 derhaman of potatoes, eight of fat and 296 derhaman of water. In addition, it takes in approximately 240 derhaman of oxygen through the lungs. Simultaneously, in the same 24-hour period, human waste is excreted in various forms. Approximately 110 derhaman is transformed into carbolic acid, which is excreted in roughly equal portions, in gaseous form through exhaling and in solid form through perspiration. The body also excretes 15 derhaman of solid waste through the kidneys and 582 derhaman of undigested matter are excreted in urine and faeces.
Returning to ingested substances, he writes that protein is vital to the formation of muscles, the heart, lungs, brain, nerves and blood. Major sources of protein could be found in milk products, eggs, meat and fish, which also contain nitrogen. The body also requires fats and starches, which undergo curious transformations inside the digestive tract. "When entering the stomach, most fats encounter an alkaline substance expressly secreted by the liver and pancreas to combine with them and form a compound similar to soap. Most starches are converted into glucose when combined with a small quantity of water. When this compound reaches the bloodstream, it either burns up in the fibres or it continues to flow on to the liver where it separates from the water and reverts to a form of starch. Then, when one feels hungry, the starch is transformed again into glucose and re-enters the bloodstream."
A subsequent article discusses the "elements of the human body", which consisted of gasses, liquids and solids. The gasses consisted primarily of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and chlorine. Such was the volume of the first substance that it could fill barrels, each with a capacity of from 200 to 360 pounds. Although hydrogen is lighter than oxygen, the human body contains a greater volume of it than oxygen, while the nitrogen, were it to be extracted from the body, would fill a volume 20 times larger than the human body. The author adds, "Because nitrogen does not combine with other gasses it is called azote."
The most important solids that went into constituting the human body were carbon, calcium and phosphorous; small quantities of sodium, potassium, magnesium and silicone; and similarly small quantities of such metals as copper, aluminum, manganese, lead, mercury, arsenic and lithium. Carbon, he notes, "is the fuel of the human body. It supplies heat and assists movement. Without it there would be no life." In a similar manner he observes, "Were it not for lime and phosphorous human beings would not be able to stand erect and walk on their feet. Although phosphorous is a deadly poison, it has not the slightest effect on the body. When combined with calcium, it transforms into a sturdy substance called calcium phosphate to which is attributed the hardness of our bones." Liquids in the human body merited only two lines, perhaps because liquid is a transitional state dependent on heat or on the alliance of solids with liquids in the body.
As human beings spend a third of their lives asleep, "What Should be Known" devoted an article to this subject, which has aroused much interest in the medical community but about which so little is known. Sleep counters fatigue, "whether physical exhaustion in general or fatigue in parts of the body", which, in turn, results from the decay of body cells. He explains, "The cells of the body decay rapidly during waking hours. Nature, therefore, is compelled to suspend bodily activity in order to diminish the average rate of cell decay, which can only occur with sleep." Scientists observing the human body in the state of sleep observed "changes in the blood vessels and eyelids, a rise in body temperature and expansion of dermal pores." Factors that cause the body to wake are either external, such as light, heat and noise, or internal, such as the intention of waking up at a certain time. The author adds, "If one is still very sleepy upon waking but must get up, the best remedy is to wash one's face and pour a little cold water over the head."
The author devoted several instalments of "What Should be Known" to air and food, without which man cannot live. Regarding the former, he relates that until the end of the 19th century it was commonly believed that air consisted of only two elements: oxygen and nitrogen. Since then, however, scientists discovered that it consists of seven, in addition to quantities of evaporated water, dust and other particles. Indeed, two entire articles were dedicated to dust alone. From these we learn that in the cities, the air at street level contained 88 million particles of dust per qirat and that each chimney expelled four million particles of smoke particles. One cannot even begin to imagine the mammoth figures scientists would have come up with had they undertaken their calculations in the era of the "black cloud" hanging over Cairo at the end of the 20th century.
Not all dust particles were harmful. Some performed useful functions such as aiding the fermentation of certain substances. Others, however, carried disease and spread across continents with the evaporated particles of sea water. "Dust from Africa has been found in Berlin, smog from Chicago was seen hovering over the shores of the Pacific and smoke from Vesuvius has found its way to certain parts of Asia." This phenomenon led to a discussion of the relationship between dust and fog, which in fact consisted of particles of dust clinging to particles of water. "Were it not for this phenomenon, we would not be able to see light beyond the atmosphere and total darkness would descend whenever a cloud passed before the sun due to the absence of particles that reflect light. However, the presence of dust particles in the air helps us see light in the skies and in the homes, even if the sun is obscured, because the rays of the sun that strike these particles are reflected in all directions."
Light radiated in the atmosphere affected the body in different ways depending on their colour. "Red light is agitating while yellow leads to despondency. Blue inspires serenity; indeed, scientists maintain that blue has such a powerful sedative effect on nerve centres that physicians can use it to conduct certain short surgical operations."
Dew was another phenomenon related to evaporated water in the air. The writer explains, "When the leaves of trees and other plants cool down at night, the air around them cools causing the condensation of water and because the leaves of plants dispel the heat of the sun quickly, dew collects on them. On overcast nights dew decreases because everything that inhibits the dissemination of heat inhibits condensation."
Perhaps the question of heat and condensation is what led to a subsequent instalment on scientific research into air temperature. The columnist relates, "Scientists fitted thermometres and barometres into 90 blimps which they set aloft at various heights and at different times and seasons. Seven were brought up to an altitude of 14,000 metres and revealed that even at that height temperatures vary considerably between winter and summer. They also learned that if the freezing point at sea level is zero in winter, in summer the freezing point is reached at 4,000 metres above sea level and in winter the temperature at 2,000 metres will be 25 degrees below zero, 40 below zero at 9,000 metres and 50 below zero at approximately 21,000 metres."
"What Should be Known" takes the opportunity to describe the effect of the moon on the earth. He writes that scientists determined that the moon is the only celestial body to influence natural events such as the tides. In addition, "It has been established from 20 years of continual observation that rain and storms have a relationship to the phases of the moon and that they are more frequent at times of a new moon than at times of a full moon."
From the environment, the columnist returns to the human body and nutrition. Food, he tells us, has a two-fold benefit. It regenerates bodily tissues when nutritional elements are broken down and carried through the blood stream to the bones, muscles, nerves and other organs, and it generates heat when nutritional substances combine with carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the body and generate carbonic acid and water. "This process does not greatly differ from the chemical standpoint from the action of lighting oil in a lamp, with the exception that the later creates light."
He goes on to list five categories of food substances, beginning with proteins, main sources for which are eggs, dairy products and cereals. "The benefit of these resides in their contribution to regeneration of bodily tissues and heat generation. These substances contain various quantities of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and a little sulfur and phosphorous." He follows with fats and hydrocarbons, to be found in meat fats, oils and other oleaginous substances. When entering the body, these foods produce fatty acids, glycerin and other acids. Although their major function is to produce heat they also are essential to the creation of tissue.
Thirdly he lists starches and other carbohydrates, which contain carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Their function is to generate energy, but their major advantage is that they store energy, which occurs when they convert into fatty substances, which are poor conductors. "The stored food nourishes the human body when it is deprived of food for some reason or other."
Salts, the fourth category, are essential to life because the brain, bones, skin and intestines consume great quantities of them and they must therefore be resupplied from external sources. The most important sources of salt are table salt and calcium carbonate. The human body also requires iron, phosphorous and sulfur, which exists in most animal and vegetable products.
Finally there were seasonings -- he lists pepper, mustard and vinegar -- and beverages, "which are not food substances but render food palatable and aid digestion". He notes that alcoholic beverages were harmful, especially in hot climates, but frequently aid in the treatment of certain illness. Coffee and tea, he adds, are stimulants.
The two instalments that followed were devoted to the lengthy progress of food through the human body, although, interestingly, the first concentrated solely on the mouth and its many complex functions.
The lips -- "the beautiful and perfect doorway to the mouth" -- are designed to take in food and are equipped with a sensory power that enables them to reject harmful foods and accept beneficial or appetising foods. "This quality has been demonstrated in experiments conducted on children, in which it has been proven that children reject food that is inappropriate to them once their lips touch it." In addition, he notes, the inside of the lips secrete a mucous substance that is "greatly beneficial in combating microbes" and assists the saliva in its task of facilitating the ingestion of food.
Saliva itself was another mucous substance secreted from glands located near the ears, jaws and beneath the tongue. In general, the saliva glands increase the secretion of this substance whenever the eyes behold anything that appears appetising, or "'makes one's mouth water', as we say in the vernacular". Saliva assists in the chewing process because it contains an alkaline substance that combines with the acids in the mouth and neutralises them. Saliva also contains substances that help transform starches into glucose. "Starch exists in such foods as potatoes, bread and rice. These foods have no value unless they are converted into glucose because the stomach will not be able to digest them otherwise. Therefore, it is advised to chew one's food well before swallowing, thereby assisting the stomach in its function and preventing indigestion."
Moving to the tongue, "What Should be Known" informs readers that its functions were not restricted to the process of speech. Rather it is one of the most important organs at the beginning of the digestive process. It pushes the food around to various parts of the mouth, thereby facilitating mastication, and then propels food towards the stomach. The tongue also served as a "sentinel", alerting the mouth to the presence of substances that should not be ingested, such as grit, bone fragments and the like. It also assists in cleansing the mouth and teeth of food remnants."
The second article on digestion focused on the intestines, pancreas and liver and concluded with a discussion on the nourishment of the blood. The intestine was a long, approximately 10-metre-long tube with many twists and folds and the function of which was to complete the task of digestion. "It is lined with three membranes, although the central membrane of the stomach differs greatly from those in the intestine since food arrives at the stomach already mashed and pulpy and, therefore, needs no further pressure in the stomach to pulverise it. The intestines contain numerous glands that produce various gastric juices, some similar to saliva and others containing enzymes that are indispensable to the process of digestion and the absorption of nutritional elements into the blood stream."
The liver, another organ essential to digestion, is a gland that constantly secretes bile which collects in the gall bladder and then is discharged into the intestines. Bile assists in breaking down fatty substances, killing germs and preventing food from decomposing in the intestines. The pancreas was an "independent gland" that produced a secretion containing three chemical compounds, which served, respectively, to break down proteins, starches and fats, and render them capable of absorption into the blood. The pancreas is important because it is the only organ to produce insulin, which helps metabolise glucose.
In concluding this instalment, the author of "What Should be Known" expresses his surprise at the inability of modern science to understand precisely how food is distributed through the minute projections located in the folds of the intestinal lining. "These projections are connected to capillaries and each contains a small duct through which liquid nourishment passes into the blood stream, which delivers that nourishment to all parts of the body." He adds, "As for undigested food, it is expelled outside the body, as is obvious, which indicates that our bodies do not benefit from all the food we eat but rather derives nourishment only from that quantity that was digested."
The digestive tract led the columnist to "The only natural food," the title of his next instalment. That food was milk, which contained special types of sugar that could not be found in any other foodstuff. These sugars were not as sweet as ordinary sugar, were less vulnerable to microbes and contained salts -- consisting of potassium, sodium, magnesium, phosphate and iodine -- that are vital to the development of bones and teeth. The abundant potassium in milk was also essential for the growth of muscle tissue.
Nevertheless, he continues, milk has certain disadvantages. It transmits tuberculosis bacteria and is conducive to the spread of typhoid and other diseases. Also, it contains bacteria that are harmful to children, especially in the summer, if it is not sterilised first by boiling. On the other hand, as though to reassure readers the writer informs them that scientists have discovered that the human body adjusted to certain organisms that thrive on the sugar in milk and that are converted in the stomach into acids that inhibit the growth of harmful germs. In addition, physicians confirm that milk and dairy products such as cream, butter and cheese, are the best nourishment for people who have mental occupations or nervous temperaments. Milk contains the most valuable nutrients for renewing the tissues of the brain -- "and everyone knows how important this organ is to the functioning of nerves, muscles and the system of bodily nourishment."
It was, perhaps, logical that the subject of the bacteria in milk led to a discussion of germs. At birth the human body is free of germs, but no sooner does a newborn come into contact with the air than its body is assaulted from all sides. Germs, the author tells us, are live organisms, perhaps consisting of no more than a single cell, that enter the body during inhalation or swallowing and are absorbed into the lining of the respiratory or digestive tracts. Scientists have estimated that the number of such micro-organisms in the digestive tract alone exceeds 400 million. Some of these microorganisms are potentially lethal, such as those that cause tuberculosis and the plague. Others are very beneficial. In the mouth, for example, certain bacteria facilitate the healing process by stimulating cells around wounds which causes white blood corpuscles to rush to the affected area.
The writer turns to these corpuscles in a subsequent article. They are round and constantly changing in shape, forever contracting and expanding. Germs that come into contact with them die after a very short period of time; indeed, they actively attract germs in order to kill them. "They function as the human body's police force. If one receives a wound, no matter how trivial, thousands of these white corpuscles rush to the scene to combat the bacteria that may have entered through the wound. If the wound is severe, they deploy from all directions like an army to the area of the wound, where they engage invasive bacteria in vicious battles, from which they generally emerge victorious. However, this victory does not come cheap. The puss that exudes from wounds consists of dead white blood cells that died defending the body." Fortunately, he adds, white blood cells multiply very quickly. In addition, after recovering from a certain disease the white blood cells emerge fortified against the germs that caused that disease enabling them to combat those germs more quickly and effectively. "This is why, for example, smallpox victims become immune to that disease after recovery. It is also the secret behind the concept of immunisation, which is performed by injecting weak strains of a virus into the body, forcing the white blood cells to react and, thereby, fortifying themselves against the disease, should the body be exposed to it again."
"What Should be Known" then shifted its attention to the world of plants. Plants differed from animals in two respects: they were insensate and immobile, and they fed and breathed in differently. There were some exceptions to the rule, of course, the most notorious being a type of plant "whose leaves recoil when something touches them", and another type "whose leaves clamp shut if a fly lands on them, after which they excrete a substance similar to human saliva which aids in the decomposition of the fly's flesh and the absorption of its nutrients".
Unlike animals, equipped with lungs, plants breathed through all parts that came into contact with the air. In addition, while animals inhaled oxygen, plant cells "inhaled" carbonic acid. Plants derive nourishment both from the air and from the soil.
Although plants were "created solely to serve as food for human beings and animals", many were equipped with "different types of weapons as a defence against animals". Such weapons ranged from thorns to chemical substances that were at once bitter, acidic or toxic. The column adds, "Plants that grow in the wild have greater resistance than those whose lengthy history of domestication minimised their defences." In this respect, the author of "What Should be Known" observes as he concludes this instalment, domesticated plants "are similar to all creatures grown accustomed to the life of servitude, which weakens their powers of self-dependency". Egyptians at the time, concerned with full independence from the British, would not have missed the political moral.
* The author is a professor of history and head of Al-Ahram History Studies Centre.
